MANAGEMENT OF ENTAMOEBA INVADENS IN THE HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTION AT THE SINGAPORE ZOO.

Amebiasis caused by Entamoeba invadens is an important disease in reptile collections, causing severe morbidity and mortality. Surveillance of the parasite at the Singapore Zoo was carried out over a 4-yr period by PCR testing on reptiles that presented with lethargy and enteritis for disease investigation. Asymptomatic reptiles sharing the same enclosures as positive individuals were also tested as part of outbreak investigation. Animals in the collection that tested positive for the parasite were treated with metronidazole at various doses, with the addition of paromomycin for two cases, until a negative PCR test result was obtained at the end of the treatment course. A total of 97 samples from 49 individuals across 19 species of reptiles were obtained, of which 24 samples (24.7%) from 19 animals were positive for E. invadens. Of these positive samples, 11 samples were for disease investigation, eight samples for outbreak surveillance, and five samples for treatment monitoring. Treatment was initiated for 10 animals, four of which were showing clinical signs of disease. The parasite was cleared in nine of these 10 animals (90%), with eight animals receiving metronidazole as a sole therapeutic agent. A total of nine animals died of the disease, four of which (44.4%) presented dead or died within 24 h of presentation. Necrotizing enteritis was a consistent postmortem finding resulting in gastrointestinal perforation in two cases, and coelomic adhesions and hepatic trophozoites were each seen in five animals. The results suggest that the management of Entamoeba epizootics in the collection requires prompt outbreak investigation. Diagnosis of the disease with advanced diagnostic tools like PCR, endoscopy, and ultrasonography and treatment with metronidazole in both symptomatic and asymptomatic animals may reduce mortalities during an outbreak.

Molecular characterization of haemosporidian and haemogregarine diversity in southwestern Iberian amphibians and reptiles.

The knowledge of the diversity and geographic distribution of parasite species is the first step towards understanding processes of global epidemiology and species conservation. Despite recent increases in research on haemosporidian and haemogregarine parasites of reptiles and amphibians, we still know little about their diversity and parasite-host interactions, especially in the Iberian Peninsula, where a few studies have been conducted. In this study, the haemosporidian and haemogregarine diversity and phylogenetic relationships of the parasites in southwestern Iberian amphibians and reptiles were assessed using PCR approaches on blood samples of 145 individuals from five amphibian and 13 reptile species. The amphibians did not present any of both groups of parasites studied. Regarding reptiles, five Hepatozoon, one Haemogregarina, and one Haemocystidum haplotypes were found infecting four different species, revealing new host records for these parasites. Among them, we found one new Haemocystidium haplotype and three new and a previously reported Hepatozoon haplotype from a north African snake. The latter finding suggests that some Hepatozoon parasites may not be host-specific and have large geographic ranges even crossing geographical barriers. These results increased the knowledge about the geographic distribution and the number of known host species of some reptile apicomplexan parasites, highlighting the great unexplored diversity of them in this region.

Molecular evidence of Monocercomonas and Acanthamoeba in the feces of captive reptiles.

Reptiles are frequently kept as pet animals. They are considered as important reservoirs of protozoa with veterinary-medical significance. At a reptile farm in Ireland, fecal samples were collected from 98 captive reptiles, representing 43 species of three orders (Squamata, Testudines, and Crocodylia). After DNA extraction, all samples were screened by conventional PCRs, targeting the ribosomal small subunit (SSU) RNA and alpha-tubulin genes of trichomonads and SSU RNA gene of Acanthamoeba spp. One leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) was positive for a not yet reported species/genotype of the genus Monocercomonas, different from M. colubrorum. Various Acanthamoeba genotypes were detected in six reptilian species, i.e., Acanthamoeba genotype T11 in Eunectes notaeus and Heloderma suspectum/horridum; genotype T4 in Varanus exanthematicus, Chlamydosaurus kingii, and Macrochelys temminckii; and the genotype T13 in Iguana iguana. Some of these amoeba species might have clinicopathological significance in both humans and animals. Our findings highlight the importance to monitor pathogenic protozoa in pet as well as wildlife reptiles, as a source of possible infection for animals and humans living nearby.

A checklist of helminths associated with reptiles (Tetrapoda: Reptilia) from Peru.

An annotated checklist of the helminth parasites associated with reptiles from Peru is provided, as the result of a compilation of parasitological papers published between 1963 and January 2022 and records of species deposited in national and international collections. The list provides data on hosts, developmental stage, sites of infection, geographical distribution in Peruvian territory, code of material deposited in helminthological collections, references and taxonomic notes. The database includes records of 106 different species of helminth parasites (82 nominal species and 24 taxa identified at the generic level), the majority in the adult stage. These helminth parasites come from 18 of the 25 official Peruvian regions. Nematodes have the highest richness in number of species (79 species), followed by trematodes (17 species) and cestodes (nine species). The acanthocephalans are represented by only one species. The parasites with the highest number of records were Physaloptera retusa Rudolphi, 1819 (11 hosts), Physalopteroides venancioi (Lent, Freitas & Proença, 1946) (nine hosts), Strongyluris oscari Travassos, 1923 (seven hosts), and Parapharyngodon scleratus Travassos, 1923 (five hosts), all of which are nematodes. The 106 taxa of helminth parasites have been reported infecting 55 species of reptiles in Peru, distributed in 34 genera and 14 families. The reptile species harbouring the highest number of helminth parasites are the yellow-footed tortoise Chelonoidis denticulatus (Linnaeus) with 18 species (three trematodes and 15 nematodes), followed by the Peru desert tegu Dicrodon guttulatum Duméril & Bibron (Teiidae) with 11 species (three cestodes and eight nematodes) and the yellow-spotted Amazon River turtle Podocnemis unifilis Troschel (Podocnemididae) with 10 species (five trematodes and five nematodes). Of the 524 species of reptiles reported in Peru, only 55 (>10%) are reported as hosts of helminths representing a small proportion considering the great variety of reptile hosts that inhabit the various tropical and subtropical geographical areas of Peru.

Rickettsiaceae in two reptile-associated tick species, Amblyomma exornatum and Africaniella transversale: First evidence of Occidentia massiliensis in hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae).

All species of hard ticks associated with reptiles as hosts throughout their life cycle, are currently assigned to genera including Amblyomma and Africaniella. Among these species, based on literature data, Africaniella transversale has never been investigated for the presence of tick-borne pathogens. In this study, seven DNA extracts (two from A. transversale and five from Amblyomma exornatum) were screened for the presence of important tick-borne protozoa (piroplasms) and bacteria (Anaplasmataceae and Rickettsiaceae) with conventional PCRs and sequencing. A new heat shock protein chaperonin (groEL) gene-specific PCR was also developed to identify Occidentia spp. in these samples. In A. transversale, Occidentia massiliensis (previously detected in rodent-associated soft ticks) and Rickettsia hoogstraalii were present. While the latter was molecularly identical with formerly reported sequences of this rickettsia, the genotype of O. massiliensis was new based on sequence and phylogenetic analyses of its groEL gene. In A. exornatum, a Rickettsia genotype closely related to R. tamurae and R. monacensis, was detected. The ompA sequence of this genotype was identical to that of Rickettsia sp. Ae-8 reported from A. exornatum in a reptile breeding facility in the USA. These results show that A. transversale might carry O. massiliensis which (unless having a symbiotic nature in ticks) may originate either from the reptile host of this hard tick species or the rodent prey of reptiles. This is also the first detection of the reptile tick-associated Rickettsia sp. Ae-8 (phylogenetically aligning with R. tamurae, R. monacensis) in Africa, i.e. within the original geographical range of A. exornatum.

Molecular detection of Wolbachia endosymbiont in reptiles and their ectoparasites.

Wolbachia, a maternally transmitted Gram-negative endosymbiont of onchocercid nematodes and arthropods, has a role in the biology of their host; thus it has been exploited for the filariasis treatment in humans. To assess the presence and prevalence of this endosymbiont in reptiles and their ectoparasites, blood and tail tissue as well as ticks and mites collected from them were molecularly screened for Wolbachia DNA using two sets of primers targeting partial 16S rRNA and Wolbachia surface protein (wsp) genes. Positive samples were screened for the partial 12S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) genes for filarioids. Of the different species of lizards (Podarcis siculus, Podarcis muralis and Lacerta bilineata) and snakes (Elaphe quatuorlineata and Boa constrictor constrictor) screened from three collection sites, only P. siculus scored positive for Wolbachia 16S rRNA. Among ectoparasites collected from reptiles (Ixodes ricinus ticks and Neotrombicula autumnalis, Ophionyssus sauracum and Ophionyssus natricis mites), I. ricinus (n = 4; 2.8%; 95% CI, 0.9-7) from P. siculus, N. autumnalis (n = 2 each; 2.8%; 95% CI, 0.9-6.5) from P. siculus and P. muralis and O. natricis (n = 1; 14.3%; 95% CI, 0.7-55.4) from Boa constrictor constrictor scored positive for Wolbachia DNA. None of the positive Wolbachia samples scored positive for filarioids. This represents the first report of Wolbachia in reptilian hosts and their ectoparasites, which follows a single identification in the intestinal cells of a filarioid associated with a gecko. This data could contribute to better understand the reptile filarioid-Wolbachia association and to unveil the evolutionary pattern of Wolbachia in its filarial host.

Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: A review.

Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) is a bacterial species complex that includes the etiological agents of the most frequently reported vector-borne disease in the Northern hemisphere, Lyme borreliosis. It currently comprises > 20 named and proposed genospecies that use vertebrate hosts and tick vectors for transmission in the Americas and Eurasia. Host (and vector) associations influence geographic distribution and speciation in Bbsl, which is of particular relevance to human health. To target gaps in knowledge for future efforts to understand broad patterns of the Bbsl-tick-host system and how they relate to human health, the present review aims to give a comprehensive summary of the literature on host association in Bbsl. Of 465 papers consulted (404 after exclusion criteria were applied), 96 sought to experimentally establish reservoir competence of 143 vertebrate host species for Bbsl. We recognize xenodiagnosis as the strongest method used, however it is infrequent (20% of studies) probably due to difficulties in maintaining tick vectors and/or wild host species in the lab. Some well-established associations were not experimentally confirmed according to our definition (ex: Borrelia garinii, Ixodes uriae and sea birds). We conclude that our current knowledge on host association in Bbsl is mostly derived from a subset of host, vector and bacterial species involved, providing an incomplete knowledge of the physiology, ecology and evolutionary history of these interactions. More studies are needed on all host, vector and bacterial species globally involved with a focus on non-rodent hosts and Asian Bbsl complex species, especially with experimental research that uses xenodiagnosis and genomics to analyze existing host associations in different ecosystems.

Against growing synonymy: Identification pitfalls of Hepatozoon and Schellackia demonstrated on North Iranian reptiles.

The analyses of molecular data represent an effective tool for increasing the credibility of taxonomy and facilitate the description of species. Nevertheless, in haemoprotozoa, the growing amount of available sequential data is not matched by the still limited number of well-defined species. We identified four protistan haemoparasites in North Iranian reptiles: two Hepatozoon and two Schellackia species. Hepatozoon colubri and Hepatozoon ophisauri were morphologically identified in their type hosts, their partial 18S rDNA was analyzed, and thorough literature data were included in their redescription. The scarce data on the detected Schellackia spp. did not allow for their formal species description. Using an integrative approach, including morphological and geographical features, host specificity, molecular data, and the data published thus far, we face the following main difficulties hindering reliable diagnosis. (1) The lack of molecular data on well-described and named species. (2) The insufficiency of using only morphological and biological features, or only sequential data without morphology, to perform an absolutely reliable species diagnosis. (3) Typical morphological features are more substantial than metric means. (4) High risk of synonymy is present in taxonomy of blood Protista. (5) Artefacts caused by blood smear processing further complicate the correct morphological determination.

A RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF AMOEBIASIS IN REPTILES IN A ZOOLOGICAL INSTITUTION.

Amoebiasis is a significant protozoal disease of reptiles causing nonspecific clinical signs including diarrhea, anorexia, and lethargy. It frequently results in acute death. Investigation of the pathophysiology of amoebiasis in reptiles has been hampered by the inability to accurately identify amoeba to the species level using conventional techniques. This study reviewed reptile medical records from the Wildlife Conservation Society's archives from 1998 to 2017. Amoebae were identified histologically in 54 cases in 31 different species. Of these, amoebiasis was the cause of death in 32 (18 chelonians, 7 lizards, and 7 snakes), a significant co-morbidity in 14 (six chelonians, two lizards, and six snakes), and seen incidentally in eight cases (one chelonian, six lizards, and one snake). Relocation from one enclosure to another was also evaluated and 65% of cases had been moved within 180 days of death (median 46 days). Frozen tissue samples from 19 of these cases were tested via an Entamoeba (genus-specific) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. PCR products were sequenced and Entamoeba species were identified. Six individuals were positive for Entamoeba invadens (three chelonians, two snakes, one lizard), two for Entamoeba ranarum (both snakes), and one for Entamoeba terrapinae (chelonian); the other 10 cases were negative via PCR. Entamoeba ranarum has typically been considered a disease of amphibians with only one report of disease in a snake. Entamoeba terrapinae has only been reported without associated disease in chelonians. These results suggest that amoebiasis is a complicated and nuanced disease of reptiles, and warrants additional study.

Toxoplasma gondii in mollusks and cold-blooded animals: a systematic review.

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is known for its ability to infect warm-blooded vertebrates. Although T. gondii does not appear to parasitize cold-blooded animals, the occurrence of T. gondii infection in marine mammals raises concerns that cold-blooded animals (frogs, toad, turtles, crocodiles, snakes, and fish) and shellfish are potential sources of T. gondii. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to determine the prevalence of T. gondii in mollusks and cold-blooded animals worldwide. We searched PubMed, ScienceDirect, ProQuest, Scopus, and Web of Science from inception to 1 August 2020 for eligible papers in the English language and identified 26 articles that reported the prevalence of T. gondii in mollusks and cold-blooded animals. These articles were subsequently reviewed and data extracted using a standard form. In total, 26 studies [involving 9 cross-sectional studies including 2988 samples of cold-blooded animals (129 positive cases for T. gondii) and 18 cross-sectional studies entailing 13 447 samples of shellfish (692 positive cases for T. gondii)] were included in this study. Although this study showed that shellfish and cold-blooded animals could be potential sources of T. gondii for humans and other hosts that feed on them, further investigations are recommended to determine the prevalence of T. gondii in shellfish and cold-blooded animals.

Biodiversity of the Coccidia (Apicomplexa: Conoidasida) in vertebrates: what we know, what we do not know, and what needs to be done.

Over the last two decades my colleagues and I have assembled the literature on a good percentage of most of the coccidians (Conoidasida) known, to date, to parasitise: Amphibia, four major lineages of Reptilia (Amphisbaenia, Chelonia, Crocodylia, Serpentes), and seven major orders in the Mammalia (Carnivora, Chiroptera, Lagomorpha, Insectivora, Marsupialia, Primates, Scandentia). These vertebrates, combined, comprise about 15,225 species; only about 899 (5.8%) of them have been surveyed for coccidia and 1,946 apicomplexan valid species names or other forms are recorded in the literature. Based on these compilations and other factors, I extrapolated that there yet may be an additional 31,381 new apicomplexans still to be discovered in just these 12 vertebrate groups. Extending the concept to all of the other extant vertebrates on Earth; i.e. lizards (6,300 spp.), rodents plus 12 minor orders of mammals (3,180 spp.), birds (10,000 spp.), and fishes (33,000 spp.) and, conservatively assuming only two unique apicomplexan species per each vertebrate host species, I extrapolate and extend my prediction that we may eventually find 135,000 new apicomplexans that still need discovery and to be described in and from those vertebrates that have not yet been examined for them! Even doubling that number is a significant underestimation in my opinion.

Ultra-structural analysis and morphological changes during the differentiation of trophozoite to cyst in Entamoeba invadens.

Entamoeba histolytica, a pathogenic parasite, is the causative organism of amoebiasis and uses human colon to complete its life cycle. It destroys intestinal tissue leading to invasive disease. Since it does not form cyst in culture medium, a reptilian parasite Entamoeba invadens serves as the model system to study encystation. Detailed investigation on the mechanism of cyst formation, information on ultra-structural changes and cyst wall formation during encystation are still lacking in E. invadens. Here, we used electron microscopy to study the ultrastructural changes during cyst formation and showed that the increase in heterochromatin patches and deformation of nuclear shape were early events in encystation. These changes peaked at ∼20 h post induction, and normal nuclear morphology was restored by 72 h. Two types of cellular structures were visible by 16 h. One was densely stained and consisted of the cytoplasmic mass with clearly visible nucleus. The other consisted of membranous shells with large vacuoles and scant cytoplasm. The former structure developed into the mature cyst while the latter structure was lost after 20 h, This study of ultra-structural changes during encystation in E. invadens opens up the possibilities for further investigation into the mechanisms involved in this novel process.

Synopsis of the species of the genus Zschokkella Auerbach, 1910 (Myxozoa: Bivalvulida: Myxidiidae).

A synopsis of the species of Zschokkella Auerbach, 1910 (Myxozoa: Bivalvulida: Myxidiidae) is presented, including 94 nominal species from piscine hosts and 3 additional nominal species from amphibian or reptilian hosts. The most relevant morphological and morphometric features of both myxospores and trophozoite stages (when available) are presented for each species in tabulated format.

Parasites in a hotspot: diversity and specificity patterns of apicomplexans infecting reptiles from the Socotra Archipelago.

Although parasites represent a major component of biodiversity, they remain poorly assessed, especially in remote regions. In this study, we screened 461 reptiles from Socotra, the largest and most biologically diverse archipelago in Arabia. Using 18S rRNA primers, we detected various apicomplexan parasites, namely haemogregarines, sarcocystids and eimeriids. Haemogregarines were the most common and genetically diverse, followed by sarcocystids (genus Sarcocystis) and eimeriids (genera Isospora and Lankesterella). All were related to parasites of other reptiles, including species from Arabia, Northern Africa and Asia. Like their 29 endemic reptile hosts, almost all Socotran parasites presented high genetic divergence and ecological differences from those found elsewhere, and probably represent undescribed endemic species. Among hosts, skinks were the most parasitized, which contrasted with similar studies from other areas, probably due to their more generalist diet and habitat use. As expected due to its high species richness, geckos harboured the highest parasite diversity in the archipelago. Parasite diversity also seemed to be correlated to island size, as the largest island harboured most haplotypes. This study emphasizes the importance of screening parasites in wild hosts from remote regions and of considering host ecology to understand disease transmission across taxa.

Molecular detection of vector-borne agents in ectoparasites and reptiles from Brazil.

Trombidiformes and Mesostigmata mites, as well as Ixodida ticks, infest ectothermic tetrapods worldwide, potentially acting as vectors of bacteria, viruses and protozoa. The relationship among ectoparasites, transmitted pathogenic agents (e.g., Borrelia spp., Coxiella spp., Hepatozoon spp., and Rickettsia spp.) and ectothermic hosts has been scarcely investigated. This research focuses on a large collection of Brazilian herpetofauna screened for the presence of arthropod ectoparasites and vector-borne microbial agents. Reptiles (n = 121) and amphibians (n = 49) from various locations were infested by ectoparasites. Following genomic extraction, microbial agents were detected in 81 % of the Acari (i.e. n = 113 mites and n = 26 ticks). None of the mites, ticks and tissues from amphibians yielded positive results for any of the screened agents. Blood was collected from reptiles and processed through blood cytology and molecular analyses (n = 48). Of those, six snakes (12.5 %) showed intraerythrocytic alterations compatible with Hepatozoon spp. gamonts and Iridovirus inclusions. Hepatozoon spp. similar to Hepatozoon ayorgbor and Hepatozoon musa were molecularly identified from seven hosts, two mite and two tick species. Rickettsia spp. (e.g., Rickettsia amblyommatis, Rickettsia bellii-like, Rickettsia sp.) were detected molecularly from four mite species and Amblyomma rotundatum ticks. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the molecular identification of the above-mentioned microbial agents of mites and ticks related to snakes and lizards. Overall, our findings highlighted that the Brazilian herpetofauna and its ectoparasites harbour potentially pathogenic agents, particularly from the northern and south-eastern regions. The detection of several species of spotted fever group Rickettsia pointed out the potential role of ectothermic hosts and related arthropod ectoparasites in the epidemiological cycle of these bacteria in Brazil.

Distribution modeling of Amblyomma rotundatum and Amblyomma dissimile in Brazil: estimates of environmental suitability.

The number of reports of tick parasitism in amphibians and reptiles has increased over the past few years, including new host and location records for Amblyomma rotundatum and Amblyomma dissimile. However, knowledge of the geographical distribution remains incomplete, and in many regions of Brazil, the presence of these vectors has not been investigated. Several candidate models were built using a correlative maximum entropy approach, and best-fitting models were selected based on statistical significance, predictive ability, and complexity based on current climatic trends and future projected climate changes. Final models showed a good ability to discriminate A. rotundatum and A. dissimile current and future potential distributions. The entire country had higher predicted suitability for A. rotundatum while A. dissimile was mainly restricted to the Amazon and Pantanal biomes. A. rotundatum is a species with enormous potential for dissemination in the next decades, potentially through the legal and illegal transport of reptiles and amphibians. The proposed model is useful for targeting surveillance efforts increasing the efficiency and accuracy of future ecological research and tick management efforts.

Phylogeny and systematics of the Proterodiplostomidae Dubois, 1936 (Digenea: Diplostomoidea) reflect the complex evolutionary history of the ancient digenean group.

The Proterodiplostomidae Dubois, 1936 is a relatively small family of diplostomoidean digeneans parasitising the intestines of reptilian hosts associated with freshwater environments in tropical and subtropical regions. The greatest diversity of proterodiplostomids is found in crocodilians, although some parasitise snakes and turtles. According to the most recent revision, the Proterodiplostomidae included 17 genera within 5 subfamilies. Despite the complex taxonomic structure of the family, availability of testable morphology-based phylogenetic hypotheses and ancient hosts, molecular phylogenetic analyses of the group were practically lacking. Herein, we use novel DNA sequence data of the nuclear lsrRNA gene and mitochondrial cox1 gene from a broad range of proterodiplostomid taxa obtained from crocodilian, fish, and snake hosts on four continents to test the monophyly of the family and evaluate the present morphology-based classification system of the Proterodiplostomidae in comparison with the molecular phylogeny. This first detailed phylogeny for the Proterodiplostomidae challenges the current systematic framework. Combination of molecular phylogenetic data with examination of freshly collected quality specimens and re-evaluation of morphological criteria resulted in a number of systematic and nomenclatural changes along with a new phylogeny-based classification of the Proterodiplostomidae. As the result of our molecular and morphological analyses: (i) the current subfamily structure of the Proterodiplostomidae is abolished; (ii) three new genera, Paraproterodiplostomum n. g., Neocrocodilicola n. g. and Proteroduboisia n. g., are described and Pseudoneodiplostomoides Yamaguti, 1954 is restored and elevated from subgenus to genus level; (iii) two new species, Paraproterodiplostomum currani n. g., n. sp. and Archaeodiplostomum overstreeti n. sp., are described from the American alligator in Mississippi, USA. Comparison of the structure of terminal ducts of the reproductive system in all proterodiplostomid genera did not support the use of these structures for differentiation among subfamilies (or major clades) within the family, although they proved to be useful for distinguishing among genera and species. Our study includes the first report of proterodiplostomids from Australia and the first evidence of a snake acting as a paratenic host for a proterodiplostomid. A key to proterodiplostomid genera is provided. Questions of proterodiplostomid-host associations parasitic in crocodilians are discussed in connection with their historical biogeography. Our molecular phylogeny of the Proterodiplostomidae closely matches the current molecular phylogeny of crocodilians. Directions for future studies of the Proterodiplostomidae are outlined.

Zoonotic Parasites of Reptiles: A Crawling Threat.

Reptiles are reservoirs of a wide range of pathogens, including many protozoa, helminths, pentastomids, and arthropod parasitic species, some of which may be of public health concern. In this review we discuss the zoonotic risks associated with human-reptile interactions. Increased urbanization and introduction of exotic species of reptile may act as drivers for the transmission of zoonotic parasites through the environment. In addition, being a part of human diet, reptiles can be a source of life-threatening parasitoses, such as pentastomiasis or sparganosis. Finally, reptiles kept as pets may represent a risk to owners given the possibility of parasites transmitted by direct contact or fecal contamination. Awareness of reptile-borne zoonotic parasitoses is important to advocate control, prevention, and surveillance of these neglected diseases.

Review of Mites Found on Various Animal Hosts and at Different Localities in Malaysia.

Mite biodiversity and distribution in Malaysia is currently understudied. Most previous works on Malaysian Acari have focused on pest organisms of medical, veterinary, and agricultural concern, with a few recent studies centered on mites in forensic contexts. Previous literatures have targeted collection sites in forest reserves and/or mountains in either Peninsular or Malaysian Borneo, though the state of Sarawak had the least publications related to mite species descriptions despite having the highest number of nature parks of any state in the country. Most publications focused on the three states Selangor, Pahang and Sabah. Most of the mite species reported were from mammals (66.3%), with fewer species from birds (21.7%), arthropods (11.2%), and reptiles (0.8%). We believe that further work on the systematic documentation of mite species throughout Malaysia is necessary as it could generate useful tools, such as the use of mites as biogeographical markers or as forensic indicators. Therefore, this review catalogs mite species that have been documented in or on animal hosts in Malaysia and serves as a foundation for future work.

Emerging Infectious Diseases of Chelonians: An Update.

Chelonians are increasingly challenged by anthropogenic threats and disease. This article summarizes recent literature and clinical experiences regarding 4 emerging infectious diseases in turtles and tortoises: ranaviruses, cryptosporidiosis, intranuclear coccodiosis of Testudines, and Emydomyces testavorans.